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Hideyo Noguchi

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Hideyo Noguchi
野口 英世
Born(1876-11-09)November 9, 1876
Inawashiro, Fukushima, Japan
DiedMay 21, 1928(1928-05-21) (aged 51)
Accra, Gold Coast
Resting placeWoodlawn Cemetery, New York City, US
Known forsyphilis
Treponema pallidum
Scientific career
Fieldsbacteriology
Japanese name
Kanji野口 英世
Hiraganaのぐち ひでよ

Hideyo Noguchi (野口 英世, Noguchi Hideyo, November 9, 1876 – May 21, 1928), also known as Seisaku Noguchi (野口 清作, Noguchi Seisaku), was a prominent Japanese bacteriologist who in 1911 discovered the agent of syphilis as the cause of progressive paralytic disease.

Early life

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Noguchi Hideyo, whose childhood name was Seisaku Noguchi,[1] was born to a family of farmers for generations[1] in Inawashiro, Fukushima prefecture in 1876. When he was one and a half years old, he fell into a fireplace and suffered a burn injury on his left hand. There was no doctor in the small village, but one of the men examined the boy. "The fingers of the left hand are mostly gone," he said, "and the left arm, the left foot, and the right hand are burned; I don't know how badly."[2]

Hideyo Noguchi and his mother Shika

In 1883, Noguchi entered Mitsuwa elementary school. Thanks to generous contributions from his teacher Kobayashi and his friends, he was able to receive surgery on his badly burned hand. He recovered about 70% mobility and functionality in his left hand through the operation.

Noguchi decided to become a doctor to help those in need. He apprenticed himself to Dr. Kanae Watanabe (渡部 鼎, Watanabe Kanae), the same doctor who had performed the surgery. He entered Saisei Gakusha, which later became Nippon Medical School. He passed the examinations to practice medicine when he was twenty years old in 1897. He showed signs of great talent and was supported in his studies by Dr. Morinosuke Chiwaki. In 1898, he changed his first name to Hideyo after reading a Tsubouchi Shōyō novel of college students whose character had the same name—Seisaku—as him. The character in the story was an intelligent medical student like Noguchi but became lazy and ruined his life.[3]

Career

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In 1900 Noguchi travelled on the America Maru to the United States, where he obtained a job as a research assistant with Dr. Simon Flexner at the University of Pennsylvania and later at the Rockefeller Institute of Medical Research. He thrived in this environment.[4] At this time his work concerned venomous snakes. In part, his move was motivated by difficulties in obtaining a medical position in Japan, as prospective employers were concerned that his hand deformity would discourage potential patients. In a research setting, he did not such an issue. He and his peers learned from their work and from each other. In 1907, the University of Pennsylvania awarded him an honorary degree.[5] He published over 200 papers on various infectious diseases and gave lecture tours throughout Europe.[5] In this period, a fellow research assistant in Flexner's lab was Frenchman Alexis Carrel, who would go on to win a Nobel Prize in 1912.[6]

Noguchi's work later attracted the Prize committee's scrutiny.[7] In the 21st century, the Nobel Foundation archives were opened for public inspection and research. Historians found that Noguchi was nominated several times for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine: in 1913–1915, 1920, 1921 and 1924–1927.[8] During the 1920s, his work was being increasingly criticized for inaccuracies.[citation needed] In 1921, he was elected as a member of the American Philosophical Society.[9]

In 1913, Noguchi demonstrated the presence of Treponema pallidum (syphilitic spirochete) in the brain of a progressive paralysis patient, proving that the spirochete was the cause of the disease and the neurological connection.[10] Dr. Noguchi's name is remembered in the binomial attached to another spirochete, Leptospira noguchii.[11]

In 1917, Noguchi was released from the hospital after having typhoid fever. Noguchi and his wife, Mary Dardis, went to Shandaken in the Catskills to recover and stayed at the Glenbrook Hotel.[5] His friend, Ichiro Hori, an artist and his neighbor, gave him a box of oil paints and he painted his surroundings.[5] Noguchi acquired a love for painting there.[5] The nature and mountains reminded Noguchi of his hometown and the Bandai foothills.[5] During that time, he decided to design and build a mountain cottage in Shandaken alongside the Esopus.[5] It was the first property they owned and were Hideyo and Mary would spend most of their summers.[5]

In 1918, Noguchi traveled extensively in Central America and South America working with the International Health Board to conduct research to develop a vaccine for yellow fever, and to research Oroya fever, poliomyelitis and trachoma. He believed that yellow fever was caused by spirochaete bacteria instead of a virus. He worked for much of the next ten years trying to prove this theory. His work on yellow fever was widely criticized as taking an inaccurate approach that was contradictory to contemporary research, and confusing yellow fever with other pathogens. In 1927-28 three different papers appeared in medical journals that discredited his theories.[12] It turned out he had confused yellow fever with leptospirosis. The vaccine he developed against "yellow fever" was successfully used to treat the latter disease.

Luetin Experiment and the Antivivisectionists

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In 1911 and 1912 at the Rockefeller Institute in New York City, Noguchi was working to develop a syphilis skin test similar to the tuberculin skin test, which could provide a useful diagnostic procedure to complement the Wassermann test in the detection of syphilis.[13] The subjects were gathered from clinics and hospitals in New York. In the experiment, the Rockefeller Institute staff injected an inactive product of syphilis, called luetin, under the subjects' upper arm skin without their consent.[13] Skin reactions were studied, as they varied among healthy subjects and syphilis patients, based on the disease's stage and its treatment. Of the 571 subjects, 315 had syphilis. The remaining subjects were "controls;" some of which were orphans between the ages of 2 and 18 years, but most were hospital patients being treated for diseases, such as malaria, leprosy, tuberculosis, and pneumonia.[14]

Critics at the time, mainly from the anti-vivisectionist movement, noted that the Rockefeller Institute violated the rights of vulnerable orphans and hospital patients. There was concern on the part of anti-vivisectionists that the subjects would get syphilis from Noguchi's experiments, even though that was not possible, but it was exaggerated with yellow journalism.[13][15][16] Much of the information came from newspapers without doctors or scientists being consulted, ignoring the biomedical science behind it.[13] Although, none of subjects were infected with syphilis during the medical trials, Noguchi's experiment had tested on patients without their consent.[13]

In Noguchi's defense, Noguchi had performed tests on animals to ensure the safety of the luetin test.[13] Noguchi had not even suggested human trials, it was Professor William Henry Welch, Board of Scientific Directors at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, that suggested it.[13] Rockefeller Institute business manager Jerome D. Greene wrote a letter to the Anti-Vivisection Society, which had pointed out that Noguchi had tested the extract on himself before administering it to subjects, and his fellow researchers had done the same.[13] However, Noguchi himself was diagnosed with untreated syphilis in 1913.[16] Furthermore, Greene told the public the steps Noguchi had taken to ensure luetin sterility so it was impossible that the injections could cause syphilis.[13] At the time, Greene's explanation was considered a demonstration of the importance of the studies and care the doctors were taking in research, but it ignored human consent. In May 1912, the New York Society for the Prevention for Cruelty to Children asked the New York district attorney to press charges against Noguchi; he declined. [17]

Even though none of the subjects were injured in the experiment. Albert Leffingwell, a physician, social reformer, and advocate for vivisectionist restrictions, said in response to Jerome D. Greene about the experiment in advocating for informed consent.[13]

"If insurance could have been given that the luetin test implied no risk of any kind, might not the Rockefeller Institute have secured any number of volunteers by the offer of a gratuity of twenty or thirty dollars as a compensation for any discomfort that might be endured?"[13]

In the United States, it was not until the late 20th century that sufficient consensus developed about human experimentation for laws to be passed about informed consent and the rights of patients, but in the early 20th century, consent were by no means customary.[16][13] For instance, other renowned microbiologists, such as Robert Koch operated medical concentration camps in Africa to find a cure for sleeping sickness and Louis Pasteur experimented on 9-year-old Joseph Meister with a rabies vaccine without having tested it and was suspected to have lied about conducting animal trials.[18][19]

Death

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The bust of the Japanese scientist and doctor Hideyo Noguchi was inaugurated on June 22, 2018 outside the Crystal Palace in Guayaquil

Following the death of British pathologist Adrian Stokes of yellow fever in September 1927,[20] it became increasingly evident that yellow fever was caused by a virus, not by the bacillus Leptospira icteroides, as Noguchi believed.[5]

Feeling his reputation was at stake, Noguchi hastened to Lagos to carry out additional research. However, he found the working conditions in Lagos did not suit him. At the invitation of Dr. William Alexander Young, the young director of the British Medical Research Institute, Accra, Gold Coast (modern-day Ghana), he moved to Accra and made this his base in 1927.

However, Noguchi proved a very difficult guest and by May 1928 Young regretted his invitation. Noguchi was secretive and volatile, working almost entirely at night to avoid contact with fellow researchers. The diaries of Oskar Klotz, another researcher with the Rockefeller Foundation,[21] describe Noguchi's temper and behavior as erratic and bordering on the paranoid. His methods were haphazard.

According to Klotz, he inoculated huge numbers of monkeys with yellow fever, but failed to keep proper records. He may have believed himself immune to yellow fever, having been inoculated with a vaccine of his own development. Possibly his erratic and irresponsible behavior was caused by the untreated syphilis with which he was diagnosed in 1913, and which may have progressed to neurosyphilis.[citation needed]

Despite repeated promises to Young, Noguchi failed to keep infected mosquitoes in their specially designed secure housing. In May 1928, having failed to find evidence for his theories, Noguchi was set to return to New York, but was taken ill in Lagos.

He boarded his ship to sail home, but on 12 May was put ashore at Accra and taken to a hospital with yellow fever. After lingering for some days, he died on 21 May.[22]

In a letter home, Young states, "He died suddenly noon Monday. I saw him Sunday afternoon – he smiled – and amongst other things, said, “Are you sure you are quite well?" "Quite." I said, and then he said "I don’t understand."[23]

Seven days later, despite exhaustive sterilisation of the site and most particularly of Noguchi's laboratory, Young himself died of yellow fever.[24]

Legacy

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Statue of Hideyo Noguchi in Ueno Park
Hideyo Noguchi Memorial Museum

While Noguchi was influential during his lifetime, later research was not able to reproduce many of his claims, including having discovered the causes of polio, rabies, syphilis, trachoma, and yellow fever.[25] His finding that Noguchia granulosis causes trachoma was questioned within a year of his death, and overturned shortly thereafter.[26][27] His identification of the rabies pathogen was wrong,[28] because the medium he invented to cultivate bacteria was seriously prone to contamination.[29] A fellow Rockefeller Institute researcher said that Noguchi "knew nothing about the pathology of yellow fever" and criticized him for being unwilling to issue retractions for false claims, saying, "I don't think that Noguchi was an honest scientist".[30] Noguchi's failures have often been attributed to his tendency to work in isolation without the skeptical eye of fellow researchers.[12][31] What are considered flaws in the Rockefeller Institute's system of peer review is also a frequent subject of criticism.[32]

Noguchi's most famous contribution is his identification of the causative agent of syphilis (the bacteria Treponema pallidum) in the brain tissues of patients with partial paralysis due to meningoencephalitis.[33] Other lasting contributions include the use of snake venom in serums, the identification of the leishmaniasis pathogen and of Carrion's disease with Oroya fever. His claim to have grown a culture of syphilis is considered irreproducible.[citation needed]

Selected works

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Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution. [OCLC 2377892]
Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Institution. [OCLC 14796920]
Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott. [OCLC 3201239]
New York: P. B. Hoeber. [OCLC 14783533]

Honors during Noguchi's lifetime

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Noguchi was honored with Japanese and foreign decorations. He received honorary degrees from a number of universities.

He was self-effacing in his public life, and he often referred to himself as "funny Noguchi." Those who knew him well said that he "gloated in honors."[34] When Noguchi was awarded an honorary doctorate at Yale, William Lyon Phelps observed that the kings of Spain, Denmark and Sweden had conferred awards, but "perhaps he appreciates even more than royal honors the admiration and the gratitude of the people."[35]

Posthumous honors

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Hideyo Noguchi on the ¥1,000 banknote
The grave of Hideyo Noguchi in Woodlawn Cemetery

Noguchi's remains were returned to the United States and buried in Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx, New York City.[44]

In 1928, the Japanese government awarded Noguchi the Order of the Rising Sun, Gold and Silver Star, which represents the second highest of eight classes associated with the award.[45]

In 1979, the Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research (NMIMR) was founded with funds donated by the Japanese government[46] at the University of Ghana in Legon, a suburb north of Accra.[47]

In 1981, the Instituto Nacional de Salud Mental (National Institute of Mental Health) "Honorio Delgado - Hideyo Noguchi" was founded with founds of the Peruvian Government and the JICA (Japan International Cooperation Agency) in Lima - Perú.[48]

Dr. Noguchi's portrait has been printed on Japanese 1000-yen banknotes since 2004.[49] In addition, the house near Inawashiro where he was born and brought up is preserved. It is operated as part of a museum to his life and achievements.

Noguchi's name is honored at the Centro de Investigaciones Regionales Dr. Hideyo Noguchi at the Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán.[50]

A 2.1 km street in Guayaquil, Ecuador downtown is named after Dr. Hideyo Noguchi.

Hideyo Noguchi Africa Prize

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The footstone of Hideyo Noguchi in Woodlawn Cemetery, New York City

The Japanese Government established the Hideyo Noguchi Africa Prize in July 2006 as a new international medical research and services award to mark the official visit by Prime Minister Jun'ichirō Koizumi to Africa in May 2006 and the 80th anniversary of Dr. Noguchi's death.[51] The Prize is awarded to individuals with outstanding achievements in combating various infectious diseases in Africa or in establishing innovative medical service systems.[52] The presentation ceremony and laureate lectures coincided with the Fourth Tokyo International Conference on African Development in late April 2008.[53] In 2009, the conference venue was moved from Tokyo to Yokohama as another way of honoring the man after whom the prize was named. In 1899, Dr. Noguchi worked at the Yokohama Port Quarantine Office as an assistant quarantine doctor.[54]

The Prize is expected to be awarded every five years.[55] The prize has been made possible through a combination of government funding and private donations.[56]

See also

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Notes

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  1. ^ a b Hideyo Noguchi
  2. ^ Eckstein, Gustav, NOGUCHI, 1931, Harper, NY|page 11
  3. ^ Tan, Siang Yong; Furubayashi, Jill (October 2014). "Hideyo Noguchi (1876-1928): Distinguished bacteriologist". Singapore Medical Journal. 55 (10): 550–551. doi:10.11622/smedj.2014140. ISSN 0037-5675. PMC 4293967. PMID 25631898.
  4. ^ Flexner, James Thomas. (1996). Maverick's Progress, pp. 51-52.
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h i Kita, Atsushi (July 1, 2005). Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery. Kodansha USA.
  6. ^ Gray, Christopher. "Streetscapes/Rockefeller University, 62nd to 68th Streets Along the East River; From a Child's Death Came a Medical Institute's Birth," New York Times. February 25, 2001.
  7. ^ Japanese Government Internet TV: "Hideyo Noguchi Africa Prize," streaming video 2007/04/26
  8. ^ "Hideyo Noguchi". Nobel Prize Nomination Archive. Archived from the original on October 1, 2022. Retrieved 7 August 2011.
  9. ^ "APS Member History". search.amphilsoc.org. Retrieved 2021-05-03.
  10. ^ "Hideyo Noguchi | Japanese bacteriologist". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2017-10-04.
  11. ^ Dixon, Bernard. "Fame, Failure, and Yellowjack" Archived 2012-03-28 at the Wayback Machine, Microbe Magazine (American Society for Microbiology). May 2004.
  12. ^ a b SS Kantha. "Hideyo Noguchi's Research on Yellow Fever (1918-1928) In The Pre-Electron Microscope Era," Kitasato Arch. of Exp. Med., 62.1 (1989), pp.1-9
  13. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Lederer, Susan (March 1985). "Hideyo Noguchi's Luetin Experiment and the Antivivisectionists". The History of Science Society – via JSTOR.
  14. ^ Noguchi H (1912). "Experimental research in syphilis with especial reference to Spirochaeta pallida (Treponema pallidum)". JAMA. 58 (16): 1163–1172. doi:10.1001/jama.1912.04260040179001.
  15. ^ Lederer SE. "Hideyo Noguchi's Luetin Experiment and the Antivivisectionists", Isis, Vol. 76, No. 1 (March 1985), pp. 31-48
  16. ^ a b c Lederer, Susan E. Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America before the Second World War, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995/1997 paperback
  17. ^ Susan E. Lederer. Subjected to Science: Human Experimentation in America before the Second World War. Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997. pp. 86-7.
  18. ^ Schwikowski, Martina. "Robert Koch's dubious legacy in Africa".
  19. ^ Najera, Rene. "The Other Side of Louis Pasteur's Discoveries in Science and Medicine".
  20. ^ "Prof. Adrian Stokes Dies of Yellow Fever – British Pathologist Succumbs in Africa to Disease He Went There to Study". The New York Times. September 22, 1927 – via www.nytimes.com.
  21. ^ Barrie, H. J. (1 January 1997). "Diary Notes on a Trip to West Africa in Relation to a Yellow Fever Expedition under the Auspices of the Rockefeller Foundation,1926, by Oskar Klotz". Canadian Bulletin of Medical History. 14 (1): 133–163. doi:10.3138/cbmh.14.1.133. PMID 11619770.
  22. ^ To, Wireless (May 22, 1928). "Dr. Noguchi is Dead, Martyr of Science. Bacteriologist of Rockefeller Institute Dies of Yellow Fever on Gold Coast. Japanese, Ranked With Pasteur and Metchnikoff, Found Carrier of Own Disease". New York Times. Retrieved 2009-08-26. Professor Hideyo Noguchi, bacteriologist of the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research, died here today from yellow fever, which ...
  23. ^ WA Young, personal letter dated 23 May 1928
  24. ^ "Obituary, Dr. W.A. Young". Nature. 122 (3062): 29. 7 July 1928. Bibcode:1928Natur.122Q..29.. doi:10.1038/122029a0.
  25. ^ Grant J (2007). Corrupted Science. Facts, Figures & Fun, 2007. p. 43. ISBN 978-1-904332-73-2.
  26. ^ Beret E. Strong, G. Richard O'Connor. Seeking the Light: The Lives of Phillips and Ruth Lee Thygeson. p. 57
  27. ^ de Rotth A (1939). "The Problem of the Etiology of Trachoma Rickettsia". Arch Ophthalmol. 22 (4): 533–539. doi:10.1001/archopht.1939.00860100017001.
  28. ^ Fielding H. Garrison. An introduction to the history of medicine. WB Saunders Co., 4th ed., 1966. p. 588.
  29. ^ Wilson G.S. (1959). "Faults and Fallacies in Microbiology: The Fourth Marjory Stephenson Memorial Lecture". Microbiology. 21 (1): 1–15. doi:10.1099/00221287-21-1-1. PMID 13845061.
  30. ^ Thomas Rivers. Tom Rivers: Reflections on a Life in Medicine and Science: An Oral History Memoir. M.I.T. Press, 1967. pp.95-98.
  31. ^ Wilson 1959, p. 9.
  32. ^ Isabel Rosanoff Plesset, Noguchi and his patrons
  33. ^ Dr. Hideyo Noguchi’s Academic Achievements and Contribution to Africa
  34. ^ "Funny Noguchi," Time. May 18, 1931.
  35. ^ a b "Angll Inaugurated at Yale Graduation; New President Takes Office Before a Distinguished Audience of University Men; 784 Degrees are given; Mme. Curie, Sir Robert Jones, Archibald Marshall, J.W. Davis and Others Honored," New York Times. June 23, 1921.
  36. ^ Kita, Atsushi. (2005). Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery, p. 169.
  37. ^ Kita, p. 181.
  38. ^ Kita, p. 177;
  39. ^ a b Kita, p. 182.
  40. ^ Kita, Atsushi. (2005). Dr. Noguchi's Journey: A Life of Medical Search and Discovery, p. 196; n.b., Order of the Rising Sun, Gold Rays with Rosette, 1915.
  41. ^ Kita, p. 186.
  42. ^ a b Japan, Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Noguchi & Latin America
  43. ^ a b Japanese Wikipedia
  44. ^ "A Place for All Eternity In Their Adopted Land", New York Times. September 1, 1997.
  45. ^ "Mikado Honors Dr. Noguchi, New York Times. June 2, 1928.
  46. ^ University of Pennsylvania: Global Health Project Archived March 12, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
  47. ^ University of Ghana: Noguchi Institute (NMIMR). Archived January 7, 2009, at the Wayback Machine
  48. ^ "Instituto Nacional de Salud Mental Honorio Delgado - Hideyo Noguchi".
  49. ^ Bank of Japan: Valid Bank of Japan Notes, as of August 2004; Archived 2009-03-25 at the Wayback Machine Brook, James. "Japan Issues New Currency to Foil Forgers," New York Times. November 2, 2004
  50. ^ Teleinformática, Departamento de. "Universidad Autónoma de Yucatán - 2016 - Directorio Universitario".
  51. ^ Japan Science and Technology Agency: " Commemorative Lecture: The First Hideyo Noguchi Africa Prize," Archived 2012-03-28 at the Wayback Machine Science Links Japan web site.
  52. ^ Rockefeller Foundation: Noguchi Prize, history Archived May 23, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  53. ^ Japan, Cabinet Office: Noguchi Prize, chronology
  54. ^ Hideyo Noguchi Memorial Museum: Noguchi, life events Archived August 24, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
  55. ^ World Health Organization: Noguchi Prize, WHO/AFRO involved Archived January 30, 2010, at the Wayback Machine
  56. ^ "Noguchi Africa Prize short by 70% of fund target," Yomiuri Shimbun (Tokyo). March 30, 2008. [dead link]

References

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